HIST 101 - History of the United States to 1877

For research projects you will be using two basic types of information: Primary and Secondary. Your instructor will usually tell you what types of information he or she expects you to use for your research. What's the difference between these types?

Primary (Think of this as Firsthand):

Primary sources are original materials that were created firsthand; they have not been run through the filter of interpretation.

Because primary sources are the documents or artifacts closest to the topic of investigation, they are a great way to gain insight into and an understanding of an event or topic. Often they are created during the time period that is being studied but they can also be produced later by eyewitnesses or participants.

You may find primary sources in their original format (usually in an archive) or reproduced in a variety of ways: books, microfilm, digital, etc.

Examples are:

• Original Research (reported in journals & dissertations)
• Diaries
• Interviews (legal proceedings, personal, telephone, email)
• Letters
• Original Documents (i.e. birth certificate or a trial transcript)
• Patents
• Photographs
• Proceedings of Meetings, Conferences and Symposia
• Survey Research (such as market surveys and public opinion polls)
• Works of Literature
• Laws (constitutions, statutes, regulations, and court cases)

For more information and help with finding Primary Sources, check out our Find Primary Sources research guide.

Secondary (Think of this as Second-Hand):

Secondary information is made up of accounts written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight. Therefore, secondary information interprets and evaluates primary information. Examples are:

• Analysis & Interpretations of Original Research (reported in magazines)
• Biographies
• Books
• Commentaries
• Dissertations
• Indexes, Abstracts, Bibliographies (used to locate primary & secondary sources)
• Journal Articles

You'll use the OneSearch (Library Catalog), library databases, and the Web to find secondary sources.

Popular, Substantive, and Scholarly Sources

Unless otherwise instructed by your teacher, you'll probably want to use a variety sources to help you gain a complete understanding of your topic. Sources of information generally fall within three categories. These categories are  Popular, Substantive, and Scholarly (or Peer Reviewed). To use them skillfully you need to be able to identify them and understand their differences.

	Popular Sources: Created by journalists, staff writers or freelance writers, and, sometimes, by enthusiasts. Written for the general public. Provides a broad overview of topics a general readership will find entertaining. You'll need to be sure to supplement information from popular sources with articles from substantive and scholarly sources.
	Substantive Sources: Written by experts or credentialed journalists. Written for an educated audience. Provides credible information of relevance to an educated and concerned public. Substantive information is a great choice for community college students, because it is both credible and easy to understand.
	Scholarly Sources: Written by scholars/experts whose credentials can be evaluated. Written for other scholars, it communicates specialized and discipline-specific information, often reporting on original research and experimentation. Scholarly information is a great choice for college students, though it can be challenging to read because of its scholarly language. Scholarly sources are often called academic or peer-reviewed.

What Does Peer Review Mean?

Peer review is a process that some scholarly journal publishers use to ensure the articles they publish represent the best scholarship currently available. Peer-reviewed journals are sometimes called "refereed" journals. When an article is submitted to a peer-reviewed/refereed journal, the editors send it out to other scholars in the same field to get their opinion on the quality of the scholarship and its relevance and importance to the field. This means that when an article is finally published in a peer-reviewed publication, there is a consensus among experts that the information communicated in that article is of the highest quality.

Not all scholarly publications are peer-reviewed, though it is very common for professors to request peer-reviewed articles to ensure you are exposed to the most credible information within your discipline.

Finding information today is easy; it's all around you. Making sure the information you find is reliable is your challenge.

When you use Google or any social media to get your information how do you know it can be trusted? How do you know it's not biased?

You can feel pretty confident that books you get from the library and articles you find in the library's databases are reliable because someone or some group has checked all the facts and arguments the author made before publishing them. You still have to think about whether or not the book or article is current and suitable for your project but you can feel confident that it is a trustworthy source.

Make sure that each and every source you plan on using in your paper or research assignment passes the CRAAP test.

For more information on evaluating your sources, check out our CRAAP Test: Evaluate Your Sources guide.

Watch the brief video below to see how this works.